Pre-modern societies tend to regard social hierarchies as normal and although there was some questioning ofthese, this was not an axiom of social organization. Questioning hierarchies is fundamental to modernization.Nor was there in the earlier past any significant concern with issues of human rights, whether they related tothe availability of justice, employment, education, health, welfare or other minimum facilities. In theprocess of modernization and particularly after independence, these were seen as the necessary foundation tothe development of the nation. But today, with the reversal of the values that Indian independence stood for,they are of little consequence. They are under attack from state policies, from the leaders of industry andbusiness houses that are supposed to provide an alternate leadership, and from those supporting a nationalismthat gives priority to the Hindu citizens of India, rather than maintaining the equal rights of all citizens.This change is encapsulated in the notion of Hindutva, claiming to be guiding force of Indian nationalism. Itis constantly referred to and continually redefined as and when it becomes necessary.