Colonial rule, European education and Christian missionary activities had led to some lower-caste assertions in the late 19th century, resulting in the emergence of two distinct responses—a reformist approach by those belonging to the upper castes, trying to integrate the Dalits into the social system, and a confrontationist approach by those belonging to the lower castes to claim what they thought was rightfully theirs. Gandhi and Ambedkar belonged to these two different streams, respectively.